![]() In this way, not articulating the in the word "fourth" could index, for example, a lack of education (the trait) in addition to a lower social class (the group). However, the presence of lack of postvocalic can also function as a higher order indexical that points indirectly to traits stereotypically associated with members of the upper or lower class. For example, in New York in the 1960s, a study by Labov showed that the clear articulation of postvocalic in words like "fourth" and "floor" indexed a higher class (in New York), whereas the absence of postvocalic indexed a lower class. She builds on Michael Silverstein's notion of indexical order: the notion that linguistic variables index a social group, which by association leads to the indexing of certain traits stereotypically associated with members of that group. Penny Eckert's characterization of style as related to indexicality marked the beginning of a new approach to linguistic style. That is, those with a middle social class often alter their pronunciation of /r/ in a way that is generally indicative of a higher social standing, while those with a lower or higher social class more or less maintain their original pronunciation (presumably because they were either happy with their current position in the social hierarchy or resigned to it). However, once forced to pay attention to language, they style-shift in a way indicative of their social aspirations. In his study of /r/-variation in New York Department stores, he observed that those with a lower social class are less likely to pronounce postvocalic in words like fourth and floor, while those with a higher social class are more likely to pronounce postvocalic in their less careful speech. Labov's work primarily attempted to linked linguistic variants as a function of formality (a proxy for attention to speech) to specific social groups. "Face-to-face interviews are the only means of obtaining the volume and quality of recorded speech that is needed for quantitative analysis." Quantitative analysis requires the kind of data that must be obtained in a very obvious, formal way. An interlocutor's vernacular style is most likely displayed if they do not perceive outside observers, and are not paying immediate attention to their own speech. "Any systematic observation of a speaker defines a formal context where more than the minimum attention is paid to speech." In other words, even formal face-to-face interviews severely limit a speaker's use of their vernacular style. This "basic" style has the least variation, and provides the most general account of the style of a given group. "The vernacular, in which the minimum attention is paid to speech, provides the most systematic data for linguistic analysis." Labov characterized the vernacular as the original base mode of speech, learned at a very young age, on which more complex styles build later in life. According to studies conducted by Labov, this was one of the single most important factors that determined whether or not an interlocutor would make a style-shift. "Styles can be ranged along a single dimension, measured by the amount of attention paid to speech." Style-shifting correlates strongly with the amount of attention paid to speech. He summed up his ideas about style in five principles: "There are no single style speakers." Style-shifting occurs in all speakers to a different degree interlocutors regularly and consistently change their linguistic forms according to context. Labov primarily studied individual linguistic variables, and how they were associated with various social groups (e.g. William Labov first introduced the concept of style in the context of sociolinguistics in the 1960s, though he did not explicitly define the term. Additionally, speakers often incorporate elements of multiple styles into their speech, either consciously or subconsciously, thereby creating a new style. ![]() Rather, a speaker may use different styles depending on context. ![]() ![]() A style is not a fixed attribute of a speaker. Many approaches to interpreting and defining style incorporate the concepts of indexicality, indexical order, stance-taking, and linguistic ideology. Variation can occur syntactically, lexically, and phonologically. Linguistic variation is at the heart of the concept of linguistic style-without variation, there is no basis for distinguishing social meanings. In this context, social meanings can include group membership, personal attributes, or beliefs. In sociolinguistics, a style is a set of linguistic variants with specific social meanings. ![]()
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